Which animal is unable to synthesize vitamin a

Synthesis of l-ascorbic acid from d-glucurono-1,4-lactone conjugates by different species of animals. Chatterjee IB. Evolution and the biosynthesis of ascorbic acid. Levine M. New concepts in the biology and biochemistry of ascorbic acid. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. Vitamin C as an antioxidant: evaluation of its role in disease prevention. Vitamin C.

In: Stipanuk MH, editor. Biochemical and Physiological Aspects of Human Nutrition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co; Padh H. Cellular functions of ascorbic acid.

Cell Biol. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth; Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. Biosynthesis of L-ascorbic acid vitamin C by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEMS Microbiol. Smirnoff N. L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis. Vitamin C biosynthesis, recycling and degradation in mammals. FEBS J. Evolutionary significance of vitamin C biosynthesis in terrestrial vertebrates. Free Radic. Nonessentiality of ascorbic acid in the diet of carp. Existence of L-gulonolactone oxidase in some teleosts.

Qualitative and quantitative identification of L-gulonolactone oxidase activity in some teleosts. Influence of some environmental variables on the ascorbic acid status of mullet, Mugil cephalus L. Seasonal fluctuations and biosynthesis ability. Fish Biol. Moreau R, Dabrowski K. Biosynthesis of ascorbic acid by extant actinopterygians. Isolation and characterization of cDNA sequences of L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase, a key enzyme for biosynthesis of ascorbic acid, from extant primitive fish groups.

B Biochem. Body pool and synthesis of ascorbic in adult sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus : An agnathan fish with gulonolactone oxidase activity. Dabrowski K.

Primitive Actinopterigian fishes can synthesize ascorbic acid. Lachapelle MY, Drouin G. Inactivation dates of the human and guinea pig vitamin C genes. Guinea pigs possess a highly mutated gene for L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase, the key enzyme for L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis missing in this species. Cloning and chromosomal mapping of the human non-functional gene for L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase, the enzyme for L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis missing in man. Ohta Y, Nishikimi M.

Retroviruses, ascorbate, and mutations, in the evolution of Homo sapiens. Mammalian phylogenomics comes of age. Trends Genet. Primate molecular divergence dates. Alu Repeats and Human Disease. The whole structure of the human nonfunctional L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase gene - the gene responsible for scurvy - and the evolution of repetitive sequences thereon.

Inability of bats to synthesise L-ascorbic acid. Progressive pseudogenization: vitamin C synthesis and its loss in bats. Phylogeny and classification of birds. New Haven: Yale University Press; Martinez del Rio C. Can Passerines Synthesize Vitamin C? The Auk. Complex biogeographic history of the cuckoo-shrikes and allies Passeriformes: Campephagidae revealed by mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data.

Explosive avian radiations and multi-directional dispersal across Wallacea: Evidence from the Campephagidae and other Crown Corvida Aves Mol. A phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds: taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis of nuclear DNA sequence data. Phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation. Phylogenetic relationships of the African bush-shrikes and helmet-shrikes Passeriformes: Malaconotidae Mol.

Irestedt M, Ohlson JI. Zoologica Scripta. African endemics span the tree of songbirds Passeri : molecular systematics of several evolutionary 'enigmas'.

Phylogeny of Passerida Aves: Passeriformes based on nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data. Avian Biol. Cibois A. A phylogenetic analysis of laughingthrushes Timaliidae:Garrulax and allies based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences. Phylogeny and classification of the avian superfamily Sylvioidea. Multi-locus phylogeny of the family Acrocephalidae Aves: Passeriformes — The traditional taxonomy overthrown. The Comprehensive Enzyme Information System. Milton K, Jenness R.

Ascorbic acid content of neotropical plant parts available to wild monkeys and bats. Vitamin C biosynthesis in prosimians: Evidence for the anthropoid affinity of tarsius. Pauling L. Evolution and the need for ascorbic acid.

Algae need their vitamins. Ascorbate synthesis-dependent glutathione consumption in mouse liver. FEBS Lett. It was eventually discovered to be a disease known as scurvy, which is caused by a vitamin C deficiency. Vitamin C is abundantly present in citric fruits. We as humans are unable to synthesize our own vitamin C.

Consumption of vitamin C is thus necessary for human survival. During the prolonged voyage, the fleet did not have access to fresh foods containing essential vitamins and thus resulted in such tragedy. To attempt to answer the question of why we are unable to synthesize vitamin C, we must examine the mechanism of Vitamin C synthesis in organisms that are able to do this. Vitamin C synthesis in vertebrates involves a complex pathway. Specific protein factors are required, and the absence of any single protein will result in the failure of the entire pathway.

In the human genome, a mutation at the coding region of a gene known as L-gulonolactone oxidase GULO renders this pathway dysfunctional. Thus, humans are unable to synthesize vitamin C on their own. Interestingly, similar defects were found in guinea pigs, gorillas, chimpanzees and other primates, none of which are able to self-synthesize vitamin C.

It has been shown that ancestral mammals, living some million years ago, were actually able to synthesize vitamin C. Therefore, the hypothesis is that humans have lost the ability to produce vitamin C for evolutionary reasons. Inclusion of vitamin C in the human diet explains why our non-synthesizing ancestors did not become extinct, as they found this an effective compensation for the mutations in the gulonolactone oxidase gene.

However, biochemists speculate that there may have been some concurrent advantage of this mutation that caused it to persist and spread in the human lineage. For instance, since one of the products of the reaction catalysed by gulonolactone oxidase is hydrogen peroxide, Halliwell suggested in that the loss of biosynthesis balanced the "cost" of production, since the advantage of producing one vitamin C molecule would be lost by the production of this reactive oxygen species Halliwell More recently, Grano and De Tullio proposed another hypothesis, based on the studies by Knowles et al.

In , Knowles et al. When vitamin C supply is sufficient, the HIF transcription factor is less active than in conditions of vitamin C deficiency. It is like a sensitive titration system. There is a third yet still unexplored possibility. We know from other studies that pseudogenes are not inert, but can have a significant role in epigenetic control of gene expression Poliseno et al.

Could this also apply to the human gulonolactone oxidase pseudogene? Time and much research will tell. Vitamin C, initially identified as the factor preventing the disease known as scurvy, became very popular for its antioxidant properties. Vitamin C is an important co-substrate of a large class of enzymes, and, among other things, regulates gene expression by interacting with important transcription factors.

We still do not know why humans lost the capability of synthesizing vitamin C. This event probably had evolutionary significance. Grano, A. Ascorbic acid as a sensor of oxidative stress and a regulator of gene expression: The Yin and Yang of Vitamin C.

Med Hypoth 69, — Grollman, A. Enzymic synthesis of L-ascorbic acid in different animal species. Arch Biochem Biophys. Knowles, H. Effect of ascorbate on the activity of hypoxia-inducible factors in cancer cells. Cancer Res. Nishikimi, M. Molecular basis for the deficiency in humans of gulonolactone oxidase, a key enzyme for ascorbic acid biosynthesis. Poliseno, L. A coding-independent function of gene and pseudogene mRNAs regulates tumour biology. Nature , — doi What Is a Cell?

Eukaryotic Cells. Cell Energy and Cell Functions. Photosynthetic Cells. Cell Metabolism. The Origin of Mitochondria. Mitochondrial Fusion and Division. The Origin of Plastids. The Origins of Viruses. Discovery of the Giant Mimivirus. Volvox, Chlamydomonas, and the Evolution of Multicellularity. Yeast Fermentation and the Making of Beer and Wine. Dynamic Adaptation of Nutrient Utilization in Humans. Nutrient Utilization in Humans: Metabolism Pathways. An Evolutionary Perspective on Amino Acids.

Mitochondria and the Immune Response. Stem Cells in Plants and Animals. Promising Biofuel Resources: Lignocellulose and Algae. The Discovery of Lysosomes and Autophagy.